Life Cycle Assessment

Indranil Deb Environmental Management

Evolution of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

What is LCA ?

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool to evaluate the environmental effects of product or process throughout its entire life cycle.

Examining the product from the extraction of Raw material -------> final disposal by user

Evolution of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

LCA Process

The assessment process includes identifying and quantifying energy and materials used and wastes released to the environment, assessing their environmental impact and evaluating opportunities for improvement.


Evolution of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Early years of LCA

• · Most of the principles in LCA was taken from late 1960s -evaluation of environmental Impact of product known as Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis (REPA). Initially it was used mainly on the consumption of energy and other resources
• · In 1969, for ex, the Coca Cola Company funded a study to compare resource consumption and environmental releases associated with beverage containers (using REPA). Meanwhile, in Europe, a similar inventory approach was being developed, later known as the ' Ecobalance ' .
• · In 1972, in UK, Ian Boustead calculated the total energy used in the production of various types of beverage containers, including glass, plastic, steel, and aluminum
• · Assessment of product lifecycle experienced Renaissance through studies of the environmental loadings and potential impacts of beverage containers beer cans bell containers performed in various European countries in the early 1980s. These studies involved further elaboration of the principles underlying the assessment of plc and entailed a series of life cycle assessment of material used in packaging containers.
• · In the late 1980s and early 1990s have seen international attempts to standardise the principles underlying LCA and to develop code of good conduct in this field. Over the period list of products have undergone LCA And have grown into protect better product.
• · As a part of ISO 1400 series of standards Iso in 2000 has come out with the following standards:

ISO 14040: Environmental management - LCA- Principles and Framework

ISO 14041: Environmental management

- LCA- Inventory analysis

ISO 14042: Environmental management - LCA- Impact assessment

ISO 14043: Environmental management - LCA- Interpretation



Since the last decade LCA is gaining importance as an environmental management tool and has emerged as a decision support tool in business, policy and product development, etc. As a general concept the life cycle approach aims to support the overall goal of sustainability .

Stages in Product Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Diagrammatic representation of the stages in the life cycle of a product



≅

As depicted in these figures, each stage of the life cycle receives materials and energy as inputs and produces:

• · outputs of material or products to subsequent life cycle stages
• · emissions to the environment

Stages in Product LCA - continue

There are a number of issues associated with the life cycle stages, and they are:

Extraction of Raw Materials

This stage in the life cycle includes the extraction of all materials involved in the entire life cycle of the product. Typical examples of activities included in this stage are forest logging and crop harvesting, fishing and mining of ores and minerals.

The inventory for the extraction of raw materials should include raw materials for the production of the machinery (i.e., capital equipment) involved in manufacturing the product and other stages of the product life cycle. Raw materials used in the production of electricity and energy used in the different life stages of the product should also be considered. Collecting data for the raw materials extraction stage may prove to be a complex task. It may also lead into iterative processes such as assessing the inputs and outputs related to extraction of the raw materials that is used in the production of end products. Often, the most serious environmental problems of the product life cycle are associated with this first stage. It is a common error to leave out parts of the raw materials stage from the LCA. Essentially, the decision of what to include or exclude in the LCA should be based on a sensitivity analysis.

Manufacture of a Product

The manufacturing stage encompasses all the processes involved in the conversion of raw materials into the products considered in the LCA. Apart from the manufacturing processes at the plant where the product is made, this stage takes into account production of ancillary materials, chemicals and specific or general components at other plants, no matter where they are.

Stages in Product LCA - continue



As is indicated in Figure transportation is really not a single life stage in itself. Rather, it is an integral part of all stages of the life cycle. Transportation could be characterized as conveyance of materials or energy between different operations at various locations. Included in this stage, apart from the transport process itself, is the production of packaging materials for the transportation of the product.

The transport stage would possibly also include an appropriate share of the environmental loadings and consumptions associated with the construction and maintenance of the transport system, whether this is road, rail, water or air transportation.

Use of Product

The use-stage of the product occurs when it is put in service and operated over its useful life. This begins after the distribution of the product and ends when the product is used up or discarded to the waste management system. Included in the use-stage are releases and resource consumptions created by the use or maintenance of the product.

Stages in Product LCA - continue

Waste Management

Wastes are generated in each phase of the life cycle, and they need to be properly managed to protect the environment. The management of wastes may involve alternative processes such as the following:



Each form of waste treatment mentioned above may be considered as processing of waste associated with a certain consumption of resources. This results in various releases into the environment, and the possible generation of energy or materials that will be an input to the manufacturing process of this product or other products.

As with every tool, difficulties do arise with LCA also. Next we will discuss the problems or the limitations and the questions that have to be taken into considerations while analyzing the LCA of a product.

A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA

LCA emerged as a tool to provide an objective assessment of the total environmental impact associated with a product through its entire life cycle.

In several countries, LCA is considered the primary tool by which environmental impacts of products should be regulated by government authorities. However, problems do exist.

Some of the major LCA limitations as noted in several studies:


A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA - continue

Major LCA limitations:

1. Data quality

In a manufacturer-sponsored study to compare a product with its alternatives, the consultants performing the LCA were able to get a very detailed and current data from the manufacturer for the processes involved in the production of that product. However, they had to depend on secondary data from the literature or earlier studies with regard to the production processes concerning the alternative products. Obviously, comparative studies on the basis of the secondary data tend to lack credibility.


A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA - continue

Major LCA limitations:

2. Life cycle boundaries

A Dutch study excluded the production of several raw materials, including crude oil, for the polycarbonate production. The German study did not include emissions from the energy production associated with the life cycle of the milk containers. Most studies did not consider the working environment.


A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA - continue

Major LCA limitations:

3. Country-specific technology types

An example is the LCA conducted on the production of electricity used in the product life cycle. In a Swedish study, the electricity production was based on nuclear power and hydroelectricity, while a Swiss study, based on a US energy scenario since 1972, used coal as the energy source. This should explain the difference in the emissions found in the two studies. In addition, as the waste processing systems contribute to the nature and level of emissions, it is important to examine these systems as well. For example, if the waste is incinerated and the combustion energy is used for electricity production, the Dutch study may tend to favor carton containers over recyclable polycarbonate bottles.


A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA - continue

Major LCA limitations:

4. Evaluation stage priorities

In the cases where alternatives do not have particular advantage over another, the priorities in the evaluation stage become decisive for the outcome. A recommendation by the Danish study (referred to point 2) was based on evaluation stage choice between reduced consumption of raw material and water, but on the release of dichloromethane into the working environment (for poly-carbonate bottles). and higher energy consumption and loading of bio-accumulating and possibly carcinogenic chlorinated compounds in the waste from production (for the milk cartons)

Considering the versatility and diverse possible application of LCA tools, it may be difficult to obtain reproducible and consistent result through standardisation, without losing the necessary flexibility for adaptation to particular cases being studied . Given this scenario it is important that we include the following factors in a Code of Good conduct for LCA.



LCA is iterative in nature it needs to remain flexible and thus we are discussing limitations as in it is not standardized.

A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA - continue

Major LCA limitations:

5. Definition

This involves finding answers to such questions as :

Is the purpose of the study explicitly defined? Is it meant for internal company use or for public use? If the study is intended for public use, has it been peer reviewed? Is it clearly stated for whom the study is performed and by whom it is sponsored? Is this definition of the functional unit appropriate?, Etc … .

Again as per studies these are not standardized question in nature and may



vary with further studies / case basis.

A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA - continue

Major LCA limitations:

6. De-limitation of system under study

This involves finding answers to such questions as:

Is there an explicit and clear delimitation of the system under study?

Is the life cycle described in detail, stage by stage?

Are the life cycle description and process tree plausible?

Do they describe the real world system in a realistic way? Does the study include the extraction of raw material? Does the study include the production of electricity? What production scenario is used? Is it appropriate? Study include the manufacture of real capital for all life cycle stages? If the study has precluded capital, is this omission substantiated?

Do you find the omission reasonable? Is the disposal stage covered by the study? , Etc … .


A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA - continue

Major LCA limitations:

7. Inventory

This involves finding answers to such questions as :

Does the inventory cover all process of the process tree? Is there a reference to the source of every piece of data in the inventory? Is the data quality appropriate that is primary and recent data for all important processes of the life cycle? Do the data describe relevant technological level of the processes? Is the use of data of lower quality or omission of processes from the inventory based on sensitivity analysis?


A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA - continue

Major LCA limitations:

8. Impact Assessment

This involves finding answers to such questions as :

Has any impact assessment been performed?

Does it consider all the important environmental effect types?

Does it consider resource and working environment issues? , Etc …


A Code Of Good Conduct for LCA - continue

• 9. Evaluation

This involves finding answers to such questions as:

Are the subjective steps of evaluation separated from the objective ones?

If not is the evaluation transparent? Are the priorities clear? The conclusions of the assessment clear? Are the assumptions underline the waiting explained and do you agree with them?, Etc … .

Major LCA limitations:


Procedure for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Four steps are involved in carrying out an LCA and these:


Procedure for LCA - continue

• -Should not be ambiguous in nature and state the intent and audience for carrying out the study
• -Should specify the intent of the study result and users of the result so that proper decision can be made based on the LCA study
• -Example:
• -Product comparison with same function ( laptops, safety tools, smart watch, fire alarm, etc)
• -To identify improvement in product for further innovation and design of new product
• -To identify steps, areas, in LC OF PRODUCT to meet the eco-labelling criteria
• -Transparency is essential in all kinds of LCA studies
• -In defining the scope of an LCA study , the following elements must be considered and clearly described:
• -The functions of the system, or in the case of comparative studies, systems
• -The functional unit
• -The system to be studied
• -The system boundaries
• -The allocation procedure
• -The types of impact and methodology of impact assessment and subsequent interpretations to be used

Defining the Goal and Scope


Procedure for LCA - continue


Procedure for LCA - continue

Below are some of the elements mentioned are being discussed further to define the scope of an LCA:



The three aspects to consider when defining the FU are:

• - Efficacy of the product
• - Durability of the product

- Performance quality standard (Lindfors et all., 1995c)

© 2025 Indranil Deb

Procedure for LCA - continue

Below are some of the elements mentioned are being discussed further to define the scope of an LCA:


Procedure for LCA - continue


Procedure for LCA - continue

Issues under the Inventory Analysis of an LCA:


Procedure for LCA - continue

Issues under the Inventory Analysis of an LCA:


Procedure for LCA - continue

Issues under the Inventory Analysis of an LCA:


Procedure for LCA - continue


Procedure for LCA - continue

Each of the elements under Impact Assessment in carrying out an LCA:



The impact categories considered are:


• · Abiotic resources · Biotic resources · Land use · Global warming · Stratospheric ozone depletion ·
• Ecotoxicological impacts Human toxicological impacts · Photochemical oxidant formation · Acidification ·

Eutrophication

·

Work environment

Procedure for LCA - continue

Each of the elements under Impact Assessment in carrying out an LCA:



Classification of Emissions

The impact categories can be placed on a scale dividing the categories into four different space groups:

Global impacts

Continental impacts

Regional impacts

Local impacts



Emission

Environmental effects

Carbon dioxide, CO2

Global warming

Sulphur dioxide; SO2

Nitrogen oxides, NOx

In combusted hydrocarbons

Smog formation

Heavy metals

Chronic toxicity

Acidification

Nutrient enrichment



© 2025 Indranil Deb

Procedure for LCA - continue

Each of the elements under Impact Assessment in carrying out an LCA:


Procedure for LCA - continue

Each of the elements under Impact Assessment in carrying out an LCA:

The purpose of waiting is the following aspects:

• ➢ To express the relative preference of an organisation/group of stakeholders based on policies, goals and personal or group opinions
• ➢ To ensure that process is visible documentable and reportable
• ➢ To establish the relative importance of the results is based on the state of knowledge about these issues

Procedure for LCA - continue

Each of the elements under Impact Assessment in carrying out an LCA:

Valuation/Weighting



The list is subject to change due to developments in scientific knowledge and to certain, extent political initiatives. The list should therefore be continually adjusted to accommodate such changes.

© 2025 Indranil Deb

The table shows quantitative inventories of environmental release and resources consumptions (for production of 1MJ heat from various fossil fuels)


Procedure for LCA - continue

• · Evaluation involves a comparison of the alternatives studied
• · The objective of the evaluation is to decide which alternative causes the least environmental damage from a life cycle PoV
• · If one alternative is better in all the aspects considered the evaluation is straight forward. In fact this is often the case when product is reviewed first with the purpose of reducing its environmental impacts. However the evaluation situation gets complex when one alternative is better than the rest in some aspects while other alternative is better in other aspects. This create the need to give priorities to different aspects of the loading profiles.

- In such case subject decisions are considered in LCA. Will be kept in mind that all work conducted in LCA steps leading up to the evaluation must be based on objective and scientific principles. The subjective decisions are hence confined to this last step.

Evaluating Environmental Profiles

Procedure for LCA - continue

Each of the elements under Impact Assessment in carrying out an LCA:

Environmental Profile of two Product Alternatives



When the inventory is complete and all the emission listed are classified into environmental impact classes, and converted into common effect units, the result of environmental profiles for each of the alternatives are examined which is shown in this table .

It may be difficult to weigh between different classes of environmental impact. But it helps if you know the differences in contribution to environmental effects and which are not important factor.



To help in the comparison of this nature each of the contribution in the environmental profile may be divided by the emission from a suitable common emission scenario. This scenario may, for instance be the environmental profile of the total emissions of your state or country. In this case the resulting normalised environmental profile as shown in table indicates the size of the fraction of national emissions due to environmental effect. © 2025 Indranil Deb


Different Applications of LCA

Application for LCA can be broadly classified into private sector applications and government applications

Private Sector Applications

Public sector Applications

Product Development

Marketing

Concepts and tool in which LCA is integral part

Organisational Marketing

Strategic Business Planning

Under the public application the use of LCA varies greatly. To a large extent this differentiation depends on where a given company is situated in the product chain and the key driver for the lc activity. For business team the LCA tool should be used to understand the environmental issues associated with upstream and downstream processes as well as on site process.

Sustainable development has been included as a major item on most of the governmental agendas since the 1992 Rio Summit. Although a precise definition of sustainable development has not been given, it is obvious that LCA must be used to ensure that actions towards more sustainable future will have the desired effect in govt sector. Other tools such as risk assessment EIA, Cost benefit analysis are also used.

The main government applications include:

• · Product oriented policy
• · Deposit-refund schemes
• · Waste management policies, subsidise and taxation
• · General (process oriented) policies

Different Applications of LCA

Private Sector Applications: Product development

Relationships Between the Designer's Degree of Freedom and the Level of Information/Hanssen, 1995.

The system boundaries are enlarged step by step in parallel with the product development, but the level of detail is only increased if it delivers valuable information for the decision making process

© 2025 Indranil Deb



Product Development

Using LCA in product development helps orgs, as a large part of the future environmental impacts of a product (system) is determined by the design and construction phase. LCA applied in the design phase of product development may lead to lesser impact on environment.

As per the graph, in the idea phase there is unlimited number of possibilities to experiment with design. Thus product developers can use LCA in the development phases to make product environmental friendly and minimize impacts.

Different Applications of LCA

Private Sector Applications



Communicating product properties and capabilities, in line with customers demands / solving problems

As the level of environmental consciousness is increasing, the consumer pays more attention to the environmental properties of goods and services.

There are three different environmental marketing.

kinds

of


Different Applications of LCA - continue

Private Sector Applications: Marketing


Different Applications of LCA

Private Sector Applications: Organisational Marketing

Organisational Marketing

The classical marketing of environmental performance has mainly been orientated towards products. However, with the increasing number of companies being certified according to ISO 14001, EMAS or BS 7750, some marketing initiatives are being directed towards the environmental capabilities of the company per se.

As organisations implement the necessary policies for certification, they also encourage formalisation the implementation of LCA procedures and life cycle.

A Life Cycle Assessment is the most vital step on that journey. Based on the generated insights, you can see where you already have an edge over your competitors -and where your company can use opportunities to become more sustainable.

Different Applications of LCA

Private Sector Applications: Strategic Planning

Strategic Business Planning

Integration of environmental aspects in strategic business planning is becoming a common feature in many companies like the handling of environment management schemes such as EMAS (environment management and auditing scheme) and iso 14001 standards. But, many companies still handle the issue on a case to case basis.

There are several motivating factors behind the decision to integrate environmental issues many of which are interrelated these include consumer demand compliance and community need security of supply and product and market opportunities.

The LC information health decision makers to understand better the environmental pros and cons of their products and services

© 2025 Indranil Deb

Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used to improve a business's sustainability in a number of ways, including: Research and development Use LCA results to improve the impact of product design. Companies can consider their environmental footprint to meet corporate policies, regulations, customer demand, or other motivations.

Carbon footprint

The carbon footprint is an integral part of an LCA study. The phases and steps to follow in applying an LCA are similar to those of the life cycle approach

How LCA is akin to innovation -framework

LCA advantage / used as framework for product innovation -based on Ansoff Matrix

Life Cycle Assessment as tool/process can be used to enhance the product innovation. It can help identify environmental challenges and opportunities, and define pathways for implementation.

Integrating LCA into the innovation process:

· Keep LCAs up-to-date : Invest in tools that allow you to keep your LCAs up-to-date without having to redo them

· Review and update regularly : Collect feedback from stakeholders and adapt the LCA methodology as the innovation progresses

· Run what-if scenarios : Ensure your team can run what-if scenarios quickly and enjoy doing so

Summary


Case Study on LCA

Key highlights:

• · 51 out of 100 companies analyzed disclosed their Scope 3 data for FY23
• · 44% of the top 100 listed companies conducted the life-cycle assessment of their products or services
• · 89% of the companies disclosed their information on leadership indicators
• · 34% of the companies have reduced their Scope 1 emissions and 29% have reduced their Scope 2 emissions
• · 49% of companies have increased their energy consumption from renewable sources

As India commits to achieve its net zero vision by 2070, the business sector is being viewed as a critical enabler in furthering this ambition (Source: pwc report 2024)

Case

Real Green Cars: Tata Motors has stepped out of box with its lifecycle assessment of cars (FY 2015-16)

• · Quantification of life cycle environmental impacts and run various scenarios for resource efficiency
• · Getting Vendors on Board
• · LCAs of several vehicles including the Safari, Ace CNG and the ACE diesel


Plastic fuel-rail is more environment

Source/ 2015: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/auto/real-green-cars-now-tata-motors-has-

stepped-out-of-box-with-its-lifecycle-assessment-of-

cars/articleshow/49145219.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst

'Much of our work in sustainability is within the fence,' says Shankar Venkateswaran, chief, Tata Sustainability Group. 'We are trying to create a larger framework and look across value chains.'

The $42billion Tata Motors, India's largest automobile maker, is one of the few companies infusing lifecycle thinking within and across its vendors (as per the news article/ * now $51 B as of July 2014)



Thank You